Research Article

The impact of media use on security perceptions: Insights from focus groups of Latvian and Estonian border residents

Sandra Sprudzāne 1 * , Anna Tisler-Lavrentjev 2 , Ragne Kõuts-Klemm 2
More Detail
1 Riga Technical University Rezekne Academy, Rēzekne, LATVIA2 Institute of Social Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, ESTONIA* Corresponding Author
Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 16(2), April 2026, e202618, https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/18233
Published: 13 April 2026
OPEN ACCESS   92 Views   67 Downloads
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

The study investigates how the media shape perceptions of security in the European Union’s border regions, focusing on Latvia and Estonia, both of which share a border with Russia. Drawing on media dependency theory, it examines the relationship between media use and perceived threats under conditions of social instability and uncertainty. Two research questions guide the analysis: (1) how risk perception relates to goals of mass media use and (2) how border residents choose different information sources regarding potential military threats. The focus group discussions indicated that respondents’ goals of media use closely aligned with dependency relations under conditions of perceived risk and uncertainty: maintaining a sense of safety and being informed, protecting family members and property, reducing uncertainty, distinguishing credible information from misinformation, and sustaining psychological stability. The risk perception and media use were mutually reinforcing: the media not only provided information but also regulated emotions, fostering both preparedness and fatigue. Differences between Latvian- and Russian-speaking audiences in Latvia and Estonia highlighted how competing narratives influenced stress levels and perceptions of security. The findings suggest that border residents having opportunity to live in different media spaces (or systems), lay on the media content they trust more, and have opportunity to compare sources and adopt protective behavior. In this context, media dependency extends beyond information-seeking to include emotional management and action-oriented responses during times of crisis
Keywords: media dependency, media use, security, risk perception, threat, focus groups, border

CITATION (APA)

Sprudzāne, S., Tisler-Lavrentjev, A., & Kõuts-Klemm, R. (2026). The impact of media use on security perceptions: Insights from focus groups of Latvian and Estonian border residents. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 16(2), e202618. https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/18233

REFERENCES

  1. Andzans, M. (2023). Small powers, geopolitical crisis and hypersecuritisation: Latvia and the effects of Russia’s second war in Ukraine. Central European Journal of International and Security Studies, 17(2), 138-162. https://doi.org/10.51870/RNCC4980
  2. Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1985). The origins of individual media-system dependency: A sociological framework. Communication Research, 12(4), 485-510. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365085012004003
  3. Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1998). A theory of media power and a theory of media use: Different stories, questions, and ways of thinking. Mass Communication and Society, 1, 5-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.1998.9676398
  4. Ball-Rokeach, S., & DeFleur, M. (1976). A dependency model of mass media effects. Communication Research, 3(1), 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365027600300101
  5. Bally, F., & Sebi, C. (2025). Shifting public perception: A longitudinal analysis of national and local media narratives on nuclear and wind energy in France. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 215, Article 124111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2025.124111
  6. Bērziņa, I., & Rostoks, T. (2016). The possibility of societal destabilization in Latvia: Potential national security threats. Academia. https://www.academia.edu/37621540/The_Possibility_of_Societal_Destabilization_in_Latvia_Potential_National_Security_Threats
  7. Bērzina, I., Juurvee, I., Cepuritis, M., & Kaljula, D. (2018). Russia’s footprint in the Nordic Baltic information environment. Strategic Communications Center of Excellence. https://www.stratcomcoe.org/russias-footprint-nordic-baltic-information-environment-0
  8. Buzan, B., Waever, O., & de Wilde, J. (1998). Security: A new framework for analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers.https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685853808
  9. de Brito, R. P., de Souza Miguel, P. L., & Pereira, S. C. F. (2020). Climate risk perception and media framing. RAUSP Management Journal, 55(2), 247-262. https://doi.org/10.1108/RAUSP-09-2018-0082
  10. Garfin, D. R., Holman, E. A., Fischhoff, B., Wong-Parodi, G., & Silver, R. C. (2022). Media exposure, risk perceptions, and fear: Americans’ behavioral responses to the Ebola public health crisis. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 77, Article 103059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103059
  11. Gong, J., Zanuddin, H., Hou, W., & Xu, J. (2021). Media attention, dependency, self-efficacy, and prosocial behaviours during the outbreak of COVID-19: A constructive journalism perspective. Global Media and China, 7(1), 81-98. https://doi.org/10.1177/20594364211021331
  12. Ho, S. S., Liao, Y., & Rosenthal, S. (2015). Applying the theory of planned behavior and media dependency theory: Predictors of public pro-environmental behavioral intentions in Singapore. Environmental Communication, 9(1), 77-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2014.932819
  13. Irwanto, I., Bahfiarti, T., Unde, A. A., & Sonni, A. F. (2025). Information disorder’s impact on adolescents: Publication trends and recommendations. Frontiers in Communication, 10, Article 1495536. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1495536
  14. Jung, J.-Y. (2017). Media dependency theory. In Rössler, Hoffner & LZoonen (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of media effects. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0063
  15. Jung, J.-Y., Kim, Y.-C., Mai, L., Kwesell, A., & Lee, D. (2025). Perceived pervasive ambiguity in the onset of COVID-19: Media dependency and social media sharing in Seoul, Tokyo, and New York. International Communication Gazette, 87(7), 705-726. https://doi.org/10.1177/17480485241307549
  16. Jurāns, J. (2024). Latvia. In A. Ahonen, A. Bilal, G. H. Gjørv, J. Jurāns, M. Kragh, K. K. Krūmiņš, E. Lange-Ionatamishvili, B. Liubinavičius, K. Mikulski, H. Mölder, J. G. Ólafsson, S. B. Ómarsdóttir, V. Sazonov, J. Serritzlev (Eds.), Russia’s information influence operations in the Nordic-Baltic region. NATO Strategic Communications Center of Excellence.
  17. Juurvee, I., & Mattiisen, M. (2020). The bronze soldier crisis of 2007: Revisiting an early case of hybrid conflict. International Center for Defense and Security.
  18. Kantar Emor. (2025). Avalik arvamus riigikaitsest. Aruanne [Public opinion on defense. Report]. Ministry of Defense. https://kaitseministeerium.ee/sites/default/files/avalik_arvamus_riigikaitsest_2025_kantar_emor_.pdf
  19. KANTAR. (2022). Pētījums par Latvijas reģionālo mediju tirgu un auditoriju [Research on the Latvian regional media market and audience]. KANTAR. https://www.km.gov.lv/lv/media/30558/download?attachment
  20. Kasearu, K., Kivirähk, J., Seppel, K., Torpan, S., & Truusa, T. (2022). Venekeelse elanikkonna suhtumised ja kaitsetahe [Attitudes and will to protect among the Russian-speaking population]. Ministry of Defense. https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Index/?2=34af3d0c-aada-4830-b8e5-d5daa1682e7e__AND
  21. Kasearu, K., Truusa, T. T., & Tooding, L. M. (2024). Hybrid threats and comprehensive defence in small diverse societies: The case of Estonia. In O. J. Borch, & T. Heier (Eds.), Preparing for hybrid threats to security (pp. 201-217). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032617916-17
  22. Kõuts-Klemm, R., Rožukalne, A., & Jastramskis, D. (2022). Resilience of national media systems: Baltic media in the global network environment. Journal of Baltic Studies, 53(4), 543-564. https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2022.2103162
  23. Lejiņš, A., & Bleiere, D. (1996). The Baltic states: Search for security. Baltic security studies. Latvian Institute of International Affairs.
  24. Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267
  25. Lowrey, W. (2004). Media dependency during a large-scale social disruption: The case of September 11. Mass Communication and Society, 7(3), 339-357. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0703_5
  26. Lu, D. (2025). Risk theory: From perception to cognition. Risk Sciences, 1, Article 100015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.risk.2025.100015
  27. Mehrad, J. & Yousefi, Z. (2018). Introducing the theory of "media system dependency" with emphasis on its potential application in theoretical framework of researches in the field of information science and knowledge. International Journal of Information Science and Management, 16. 1-14.
  28. Melki, J., & Kozman, C. (2019). Media dependency, selective exposure and trust during war: Media sources and information needs of displaced and non-displaced Syrians. Media, War & Conflict, 14(1), 93-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635219861907
  29. Ministry of Culture. (2020). Estonian integration monitoring. Ministry of Culture. https://www.kul.ee/en/estonian-integration-monitoring-2020
  30. Ministry of Culture. (2023). Latvijas nacionālo mediju vides izpēte [Research on the Latvian national media environment]. Ministry of Culture. https://www.km.gov.lv/lv/media/35358/download?attachment
  31. Morton, T. A., & Duck, J. M. (2001). Communication and health beliefs: Mass and interpersonal influences on perceptions of risk to self and others. Communication Research, 28(5), 602-626. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028005002
  32. Nael, M., & Wright, H. (2022). Government approves Estonian language transition education bill. ERR.ee.https://news.err.ee/1608817765/government-approves-estonian-language-transition-education-bill
  33. NEPLP. (2022). NEPLP aizliedz 80 Krievijā reģistrētu TV programmu izplatīšanu Latvijā [NEPLP bans distribution of 80 TV programmes registered in Russia in Latvia]. NEPLP. https://www.neplp.lv/lv/jaunums/neplp-aizliedz-80-krievija-registretu-tv-programmu-izplatisanu-latvija
  34. NEPLP. (2024). Pētījums par Latvijas iedzīvotāju mediju satura lietošanas paradumiem [Research on media content consumption habits of Latvian residents]. NEPLP. https://ppdb.mk.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Rezultatu-atskaite_NEPLP_Mediju-paterins_2024-1.pdf
  35. Ozoliņa, Ž., Reinholde, I., & Struberga, S. (2021). Subjektīvā drošības uztvere-izpētes ietvara konstruēšana. Latvijas Iedzīvotāju Subjektīvā Drošības Uztvere: Letekme Uz Drošības Politikas Veidošanu [Subjective perception of security-constructing a research framework. Subjective perception of security by Latvian residents: Impact on security policymaking]. Latvijas Universitate. https://doi.org/10.22364/liesdu.01
  36. Pupcenoks, J., Rostoks, T., & Mieriņa, I. (2024). Microfoundations of threat and security perceptions in ethnically diverse states: Lessons from Russia’s “near abroad.” Nationalities Papers, 52(1), 120-145. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2022.109
  37. Rozukalne, A. (2016). All the necessary information is provided by Russia’s channels. Russian-language radio and TV in Latvia: Audiences and content. Baltic Screen Media Review, 4(1), 106-124. https://doi.org/10.1515/bsmr-2017-0006
  38. Saeima. (2023). Latgales iedzīvotāju uzskati par karu Ukrainā un plašsaziņas līdzekļu lietošanas paradumi [Latgale residents’ views on the war in Ukraine and media consumption habits]. Saeima. https://www.saeima.lv/petijumi/Latgales_iedzivotaju_uzskati_Ukraina.pdf
  39. Saldaña, J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. SAGE.
  40. Schulze, J. L., & Pupcenoks, J. (2025). Securitizing Russian-speakers in Estonia and Latvia: The frame-policy nexus before and after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Nationalities Papers, 53(5), 1035-1059. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2024.97
  41. Šein, H. (2021). Digiajastu teleraamat. Digiajastu televisioon Eestis 2000-2020 [The TV book for the digital era: Digital television in Estonia 2000-2020]. Tallinn.
  42. SEPLP. (2024). SEPLP uzdos no 2026. gada sabiedriskajos medijos sākt konceptuāli jaunu pieeju mazākumtautību sasniegšanai [SEPLP will task public media to launch a conceptually new approach to reaching minorities from 2026]. SEPLP. https://www.seplp.lv/lv/jaunums/seplp-uzdos-no-2026-gada-sabiedriskajos-medijos-sakt-konceptuali-jaunu-pieeju-mazakumtautibu-sasniegsanai
  43. Shim, M., & You, M. (2015). Cognitive and affective risk perceptions toward food safety outbreaks: Mediating the relation between news use and food consumption intention. Asian Journal of Communication, 25(1), 48-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2014.989242
  44. Sjöberg, L. (1998). Risk perception: Experts and the public. European Psychologist, 3(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.3.1.1
  45. So, J. (2012). Uses, gratifications, and beyond: Toward a model of motivated media exposure and its effects on risk perception. Communication Theory, 22(2), 116-137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2012.01400.x
  46. Society Integration Fund. (2025). Mediju atbalsta fondā atbalstīti 63 reģionālo, vietējo, diasporas un sadarbības mediju projekti [The media support fund has supported 63 regional, local, diaspora and collaborative media projects]. Society Integration Fund. https://lvportals.lv/dienaskartiba/375433-mediju-atbalsta-fonda-atbalstiti-63-regionalo-vietejo-diasporas-un-sadarbibas-mediju-projekti-2025
  47. Kõuts-Klemm, R. (2024). Venekeelne meedia Eestis [Russian-language media in Estonia]. In R. Kõuts-Klemm (Ed.), Eesti meediamaastik 2005-2024 (219-229). Tartu University Press.
  48. State Chancellery. (2023). Kvantitatīva Latvijas iedzīvotāju aptauja par attieksmi pret aktuāliem jautājumiem [Quantitative survey of Latvian residents on attitudes towards current issues]. PPDB. https://ppdb.mk.gov.lv/database/kvantitativa-latvijas-iedzivotaju-aptauja-par-attieksmi-pret-aktualiem-jautajumiem/
  49. State Chancellery. (2024a). Latvijas sabiedrības noturības pētījums [Resilience study of Latvian society]. LATO. https://www.lato.lv/wpcontent/uploads/2025/05/Resilience_LV_24.pdf
  50. State Chancellery. (2024b). Iedzīvotāju drošības sajūta un citi aktuāli jautājumi [Citizens’ sense of security and other current issues]. PPDB. https://ppdb.mk.gov.lv/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Decembra_aptauja_12.2024.pdf
  51. Tralla, J. (2022). Workgroup maps over 300 occupation monuments across Estonia. ERR.ee. https://news.err.ee/1608792433/workgroup-maps-over-300-occupation-monuments-across-estonia
  52. Vacondio, M., Priolo, G., Dickert, S., & Bonini, N. (2021). Worry, perceived threat and media communication as predictors of self-protective behaviors during the COVID-19 outbreak in Europe. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.577992
  53. Vihalemm, T., & Leppik, M. (2018). Multilingualism and media-related practices of Russian-speaking Estonians. In S. Lazdiņa, & H. F. Marten (Eds.), Multilingualism in the Baltic states: Societal discourses and contact phenomena (pp. 239-267). Palgrave Macmillan UK.https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56914-1_8
  54. Vincent, R. C., & Basil, M. D. (1997). College students’ news gratifications, media use, and current events knowledge. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41(3), 380-392. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159709364414
  55. Vozab, D., Mihalec, M., & Uremović, L. (2023). Media dependency in a multiple crisis: Information seeking and media trust after an earthquake during the COVID-19 pandemic. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 32, 93-114. https://doi.org/10.5559/di.32.1.05
  56. Wahlberg, A. A. F., & Sjoberg, L. (2000). Risk perception and the media. Journal of Risk Research, 3(1), 31-50.https://doi.org/10.1080/136698700376699
  57. Wang, H., Xiong, L., Xia, Y., Tang, Z. R., & Chen, M. (2024). Unraveling the prerequisites of citizen engagement intentions initiated by mobile government social media during emergencies: An integrative dual SEM-ANN analysis. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 110, Article 104636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104636
  58. Whyte, A. (2022). Pro-Kremlin TV channels may be banned in Estonia in next 24 hours, ERR, 24.02.2022, Pro-Kremlin TV channels may be banned in Estonia in next 24 hours. ERR. https://news.err.ee/1608511352/pro-kremlin-tv-channels-may-be-banned-in-estonia-in-next-24-hours
  59. Xu, T. (2021). Media, trust in government, and risk perception of COVID-19 in the early stage of epidemic: An analysis based on moderating effect. Healthcare, 9(11), Article 1597. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9111597
  60. Zhang, J., Huang, R., Chen, Q., & Zhao, G. (2022). Post-pandemic outbound travel intentions and preparations of Chinese residents: The effects of media coverage and risk perception. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 51, 156-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.03.007
  61. Zhang, X., & Zhong, Z. (2020). Extending media system dependency theory to informational media use and environmentalism: A cross-national study. Telematics and Informatics, 50, Article 101378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101378