Research Article

Multifocal analysis of narratives and representations of the European AI Act in Spanish digital newspapers

María Dolores Meneses-Fernández 1 * , María Sonnia Chinea Rodríguez 1
More Detail
1 Department of Communication Sciences and Social Work, Faculty of Social and Communication Sciences, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, SPAIN* Corresponding Author
Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 16(3), July 2026, e202643, https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/18968
Published: 15 July 2026
OPEN ACCESS   105 Views   61 Downloads
Download Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

This study analyzes Spanish news coverage of the AI Act from a European perspective, still unexplored in specialist literature. We examine how journalistic narratives are constructed surrounding the risks associated with AI, digital sovereignty and the tension between security-rights and technological innovation. We applied a multifocal theoretical framework and mixed method research design with an inductive approach to the coding, categorization and news analysis of a textual corpus derived from Spanish digital newspapers with high readership rates, published between 2020 and 2024. The results reveal narrative imbalances in the representation of pro-digital rights NGOs and Big Tech stakeholders concerned by European Union regulatory processes. Moreover, the analysis shows that journalistic treatment of these complex regulations and AI technology has been undertaken with a digital literacy deficit. These narratives seem more directed at politicians, experts and interested organizations than to end users, even though they are the ones the AI Act is designed to protect.
Keywords: journalism, AI Act, AI regulation, artificial intelligence, media analysis, European Union

CITATION (APA)

Meneses-Fernández, M. D., & Chinea Rodríguez, M. S. (2026). Multifocal analysis of narratives and representations of the European AI Act in Spanish digital newspapers. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 16(3), e202643. https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/18968

REFERENCES

  1. AI-HLEG. (2019a). A definition of artificial intelligence: Main capabilities and scientific disciplines. European Commission. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/definition-artificial-intelligence-main-capabilities-and-scientific-disciplines
  2. AI-HLEG. (2019b). Policy and investment recommendations for trustworthy artificial intelligence. European Commission. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/policy-and-investment-recommendations-trustworthy-artificial-intelligence
  3. Algorithm Watch. (2023). EU legislators must close dangerous loophole in AI Act, Statement, 7.09.2023. Algorithm Watch. https://algorithmwatch.org/en/eu-must-close-loophole-ai-act/
  4. Allaham, M., Kieslich, K., & Diakopoulos, N. (2025). Global perspectives of AI risks and harms: Analyzing the negative impacts of AI technologies as prioritized by news media. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2501.14040
  5. Beck, U. (1998). La sociedad del riesgo. Hacia una nueva modernidad [The risk society. Towards a new modernity]. Paidós.
  6. Bellini, P., Campanella, E., & Piccioni, A. (2025). The impact of artificial intelligence and data on political power and geopolitical equilibria. In G. R. Marseglia, P. Previtali, & A. Reali (Eds.), Socio-economic impact of artificial intelligence. A European management perspective (pp. 15-22). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-73514-1_3
  7. Bennett, W. L., & Segerberg, A. (2012). The logic of connective action: The personalization of contentious politics. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 739-768. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.670661
  8. Brause, S. R., Zeng, J., Schäfer, M., & Katzenbach, C. (2023). Media representations of artificial intelligence: Surveying the field. In S. Lindgren (Ed.), Handbook of critical studies of artificial intelligence (pp. 277-288). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781803928562.00030
  9. Brennen, J. S., Howard, P. N., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). What to expect when you’re expecting robots: Futures, expectations, and pseudo-artificial intelligence in UK news. Journalism, 22(5), 1287-1305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920947535
  10. Brossard, D. (2013). New media landscapes and the science information consumer. PNAS, 110(supplement_3), 14096-14101. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212744110
  11. Buozis, M., & Creech, B. (2017). Reading news as narrative. A genre approach to journalism studies. Journalism Studies, 19(10), 1430-1446. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2017.1279030
  12. Burscher, B., Vliegenthart, R., & de Vreese, C. H. (2016). Frames beyond words: Applying cluster and sentiment analysis to news coverage of the nuclear power issue. Social Science Computer Review, 34(5), 530-545. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439315596385
  13. Calderaro, A., & Blumfelde, S. (2022) Artificial intelligence and EU security: The false promise of digital sovereignty. European Security, 31(3), 415-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2101885
  14. Carlson, M. (2018). The information politics of journalism in a post-truth age. Journalism Studies, 19(13), 1879-1888. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2018.1494513
  15. Celeste, E. (2021). Digital sovereignty in the EU: Challenges and future perspectives. In F. Fabbrini, E. Celeste, & J. Quinn (Eds.), Data protection beyond borders: Transatlantic perspectives on extraterritoriality and sovereignty (pp. 211-228). Bloomsbury Publishing. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781509940691.ch-013
  16. Ciuriak, D. (2018). The economics of data: Implications for the data-driven economy. In CIGI (Ed.), Data governance in the digital age. Centre for International Governance Innovation. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3118022
  17. Couture, S., & Toupin, S. (2019). What does the notion of “sovereignty” mean when referring to the digital? New Media & Society, 21(10), 2305-2322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819865984
  18. D’Angelo, P. (2019). Framing theory and journalism. In T. P. Vos, & F. Hanusch (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of journalism studies (pp. 1-10). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118841570.iejs0021
  19. Dammann, F., & Glasze, G. (2023) Governing digital circulation: The quest for data control and sovereignty in Germany. Territory, Politics, Governance, 11(6), 1100-1120. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2022.2141850
  20. de Almeida, P. G. R., dos Santos, C. D., & Farias, J. S. (2021). Artificial intelligence regulation: A framework for governance. Ethics and Information Technology, 23(3), 505-525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-021-09593-z
  21. EC. (2020). Artificial intelligence – Ethical and legal requirements. European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12527-Artificial-intelligence-ethical-and-legal-requirements_en
  22. EC. (2021). Artificial intelligence – Ethical and legal requirement. Public consultation. European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12527-Artificial-intelligence-ethical-and-legal-requirements_en
  23. EC. (2024). European approach to artificial intelligence. European Commission. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/european-approach-artificial-intelligence
  24. EDRi. (2023). EU trilogues: The AI Act must protect people’s rights, statement, 12.07.2023. EDRi. https://edri.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Civil-society-AI-Act-trilogues-statement.pdf
  25. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x
  26. Entman, R. M. (2007). Framing bias: Media in the distribution of power. Journal of Communication, 57(1), 163-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00336.x
  27. EU. (2024). Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 April 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts. Document 32024R1689. Official Journal of the European Union, L 2024/1689. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj
  28. Eubanks, V. (2018). Automating inequality: How high-tech tools profile, police, and punish the poor. St. Martin’s Press.
  29. Falkner, G., Heidebrecht, S., Obendiek, A., & Seidl, T. (2024). Digital sovereignty – Rhetoric and reality. Journal of European Public Policy, 31(8), 2099-2120. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2024.2358984
  30. Feldstein, S. (2024). Evaluating Europe’s push to enact AI regulations: How will this influence global norms? Democratization, 31(5), 1049-1066. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2023.2196068
  31. Fleming, S. (2025). What is digital sovereignty and how are countries approaching it? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/01/europe-digital-sovereignty/
  32. Floridi, L. (2020). The fight for digital sovereignty: What it is, and why it matters, especially for the EU. Philosophy & Technology, 33, 369-378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00423-6
  33. Frau-Meigs, D. (2024). Algorithm literacy as a subset of media and information literacy: Competences and design considerations. Digital, 4, 512-528. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/digital4020026
  34. Gasser, U. (2023). An EU landmark for AI governance. Science, 380(6651), Article 1203. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adj1627
  35. Gourlet, P., Ricci, D., & Crépel, M. (2024). Reclaiming artificial intelligence accounts: A plea for a participatory turn in artificial intelligence inquiries. Big Data & Society, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517241248093
  36. Grant, P. (1983). Technological sovereignty: Forgotten factor in the ‘hi-tech’ razzamatazz. Prometheus, 1(2), 239-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/08109028308628930
  37. Hayles, N. K. (1999). How we became posthuman: Virtual bodies in cybernetics, literature, and informatics. The University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226321394.001.0001
  38. Helberger, N. (2024). FutureNewsCorp, or how the AI Act changed the future of news. Computer Law & Security Review, 52, Article 105915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105915
  39. Helberger, N., & Diakopoulos, N. (2023). The European AI Act and how it matters for research into AI in media and journalism. Digital Journalism, 11(9), 1751-1760. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2022.2082505
  40. Hine, E. (2024). The Brussels effect is no match for the might of big tech: US AI regulation is being shaped by lobbyists in state after state. Nature, 633, Article S15.
  41. Hoffmeister, K. (2024). The dawn of regulated AI: Analyzing the European AI act and its global impact. Zeitschrift für Europarechtliche Studien, 27(2), 182-212. https://doi.org/10.5771/1435-439X-2024-2-182
  42. Hopmann, D. N., Vliegenthart, R., De Vreese, C., & Albæk, E. (2010). Effects of election news coverage: How visibility and tone influence party choice. Political Communication, 27(4), 389-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2010.516798
  43. Horowitz, M. C., Allen, G. C., Saravalle, E., Cho, A., Frederick, K., & Scharre, P. (2018). Artificial intelligence and international security. Center for a New American Security.
  44. Jacobs, L. (2020). Tone and threats on television over time: A longitudinal analysis of news about Roma in Flanders (2003-2017). International Journal of Communication, 14(2020), 46-68.
  45. Jobin, A., Ienca, M., & Vayena, E. (2019). The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nature Machine Intelligence, 1, 389-399. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-019-0088-2
  46. Kasperson, R. E. (1992). The social amplification of risk: Progress in developing an integrative framework. In S. Krimsky, & D. Golding (Eds.), Social theories of risk (pp. 153-178). Praeger.
  47. Kasperson, R. E., Renn, O., Slovic, P., Brown, H. S., Emel, J., Goble, R., Kasperson, J. X., & Ratick, S. (1988). The social amplification of risk: A conceptual framework. Risk Analysis, 8(2), 177-187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1988.tb01168.x
  48. Kasperson, R. E., Webler, T., Ram, B., & Sutton, J. (2022). The social amplification of risk framework: New perspectives. Risk Analysis, 42(7), 1367-1380. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13926
  49. Koziner, N. S. (2013). Antecedents and bases of framing theory in communication. Austral Comunicación, 2(1), 1-25.
  50. Lane, L. (2022). Clarifying human rights standards through artificial intelligence initiatives. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 71(4), 915-944. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589322000380
  51. McCombs, M., & Valenzuela, S. (2021). Setting the agenda: Mass media and public opinion (3rd ed.). Polity Press.
  52. Mügge, D. (2024). EU AI sovereignty: For whom, to what end, and to whose benefit? Journal of European Public Policy, 31(8), 2200-2225. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2024.2318475
  53. Nguyen, D., & Hekman, E. (2022). The news framing of artificial intelligence: A critical exploration of how media discourses make sense of automation. AI & SOCIETY, 39, 437-451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01511-1
  54. Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. New York University Press.
  55. Ørmen, J., & Gregersen, A. (2019). News as narratives. In M. Powers (Ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of communication. Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.908
  56. Ouchchy, L., Coin, A., & Dubljević, V. (2020). AI in the headlines: The portrayal of the ethical issues of artificial intelligence in the media. AI & Society, 35(4), 927-936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-020-00965-5
  57. Pagallo, U. (2023). Dismantling four myths in AI & EU law through legal information ‘about’ reality. In H. Sousa, P.M. Freitas, A.L. Oliveira. C. Martins, E. Vaz, & L. Barreto (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on artificial intelligence and the law (pp. 251-261). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41264-6_13
  58. Paul, R. (2024). European artificial intelligence “trusted throughout the world”: Risk-based regulation and the fashioning of a competitive common AI market. Regulation & Governance, 18(4), 1065-1082. https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12563
  59. Pehlivan. C. N. (2024). The EU Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act: An introduction. Global Privacy Law Review, 5(1), 31-42. https://doi.org/10.54648/gplr2024004
  60. Pohle, J., & Thiel, T. (2020). Digital sovereignty. Internet Policy Review, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.14763/2020.4.1532
  61. Pollach, I., & Hansen, L. V. (2021). Tone variation in financial news: A comparison of companies, journalists, and financial analysts. European Journal of Communication, 36(5), 511-526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323121999524
  62. Porlezza, C. (2023). Promoting responsible AI: A European perspective on the governance of artificial intelligence in media and journalism. Communications, 48(3), 370-394. https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2022-0091
  63. Porlezza, C. (2024). The datafication of digital journalism: A history of everlasting challenges between ethical issues and regulation. Journalism, 25(5), 1167-1185. https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849231190232
  64. Saperas, E. (1987). Los efectos cognitivos de la comunicación de masas: Las recientes investigaciones en torno a los efectos de la comunicación de masas: 1970-1986 [The cognitive effects of mass communication: Recent research on the effects of mass communication: 1970-1986]. Ariel.
  65. Scherrer, A. (2023). How media coverage of technologies affects public opinion: Evidence from alternative fuel vehicles in Germany. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 47, Article 100727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2023.100727
  66. Scheufele, D. A., & Lewenstein, B. V. (2005). The public and nanotechnology: How citizens make sense of emerging technologies. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 7, 659-667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-005-7526-2
  67. Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 93-109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02843.x
  68. Sharon, T., & Gellert, R. (2024). Regulating Big Tech expansionism? Sphere transgressions and the limits of Europe’s digital regulatory strategy. Information, Communication & Society, 27(15), 2651-2668. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2023.2246526
  69. Sparks, J. F., & Hmielowski, J. D. (2022). At the extremes: Assessing readability, grade level, sentiment, and tone in US media outlets. Journalism Studies, 24(1), 24-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2022.2142646
  70. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (2016). Bases de la investigación cualitativa: Técnicas y procedimientos para desarrollar la teoría fundamentada [Foundations of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory]. Antioquia.
  71. Tartaro, A. (2024). Value-laden challenges for technical standards supporting regulation in the field of AI. Ethics and Information Technology, 26, Article 72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-024-09809-y
  72. Tolmeijer, S., Kneer, M., Sarasua, C., Christen, M., & Bernstein, A. (2021). Implementations in machine ethics: A survey. ACM Computing Surveys, 53(6), Article 132. https://doi.org/10.1145/3419633
  73. van Dijk, T. (1990). La noticia como discurso. Comprensión, estructura y producción de la información [News as discourse: Understanding, structure, and production of information]. Paidós.
  74. Wagner, M., Borg, M., & Runeson, P. (2024). Navigating the upcoming European Union AI Act. IEEE Software, 41(1), 19-24. https://doi.org/10.1109/MS.2023.3322913
  75. Walker, G. A. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) law, rights & ethics. The International Lawyer, 57(2), 171-306.
  76. Watson, D.S., Mökander, J., & Floridi, L. (2024). Competing narratives in AI ethics: A defense of sociotechnical pragmatism. AI & SOCIETY, 40, 3163-3185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-024-02128-2
  77. Weaver, D., McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L. (2004). Agenda-setting research: Issues, attributes, and influences. In L. L. Kaid (Ed.), Political communication research (pp. 257-282). Routledge.
  78. Zuboff, S. (2022). Surveillance capitalism or democracy? The death match of institutional orders and the politics of knowledge in our information civilization. Organization Theory, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/26317877221129290
  79. Zylinska, J. (2020). AI art: Machine visions and warped dreams. Open Humanities Press.